A generalized Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation for Floquet media

arXiv:2607.24985v1 Announce Type: new Abstract: Kirchhoff's law fundamentally relates thermal emission to absorption. For linear, static, reciprocal media, it equates the emissivity and absorptivity for each direction and frequency, while in nonreciprocal systems emission and absorption are equal when the bias is time-reversed. In time-varying media, however, temporal modulation breaks time-translation invariance, converts frequencies, and enables energy exchange with the modulation drive. As a result, a same-frequency relation between absorptivity and emissivity can no longer be expected. Here, we derive a generalized Kirchhoff's law for linear time-varying Floquet media. We show that the emissivity at a given frequency equals a weighted sum of harmonic-resolved absorptivities of the adjoint system, with weights accounting for thermal occupation and photon-flux conversion. This relation has both practical and fundamental consequences. In practical terms, it allows emissivity to be calculated from absorption, simplifying the design of time-varying thermal emitters. More fundamentally, it reveals thermal radiation regimes inaccessible in static media. In particular, we identify time-varying structures that exhibit strong emission with negligible absorption at the same frequency for all directions, yielding a near-maximal violation of the conventional form of Kirchhoff's law.